The view of education which sees the goal as preserving the "free nature" of the child is contrasted with one that sees learning as involving constraint imposed by adults on children (Gardner, 1976). This tension has, in some situations, restrained practitioners from interfering with the "natural" development of children. The consequences of this tension are still evident in contemporary practice (Makin, White, & Owen, 1996).

Views of a "natural" gender imbalance in art and education

The belief in minimising the "interference" of teachers in early childhood education grew from the Eighteenth century writings of Rousseau (1911) who believed in the original perfect nature of children and advocated that they be allowed to develop "naturally". However, Rousseau's concept of "natural" included "natural" differences between the sexes, (for example, boys were seen as independent and girls as dependent), which led to his advocating significant differences in the education of boys and girls.

Similarly, Froebel's view of "natural" learning reinforced a masculine perspective of sex differences. Freedman (1994) has observed the late nineteenth and early twentieth century connections between the notion of "natural" development and a range of apparently objective norms which were in fact "laden with social meaning" (p.159). These included notions of sex-differences in children's drawings which viewed boys as superior to girls who were considered, for example, to be "inferior in originality" (Hall, 1911 p.498).

Here the links between the world of fine art and education start to intersect. The "natural" superiority of boys drawings which G. Stanley Hall (1911) reported reflected the view of gender identity which prevailed within the art world at that time.

The view of women in art history as inferior, and at best, developing artistic accomplishments to enhance the role of wife and mother, served to limit the conceptual framework on artmaking by constructing a male model of artistic practice which discounted, or ignored, social and cultural characteristics. In the late twentieth century, the impetus for inclusion of women in the writing of art history has not necessarily altered this model as Hoorn (1994) has observed. Her analysis of art texts revealed the subtle ways in which women's artmaking is devalued through relatively limited discussion and reference to women's personal characteristics (such as "attractive personality") rather than their contribution to artistic practice. While these assumptions about adult artwork are being challenged, the influence of socio-cultural attitudes in relation to gender in early childhood art has received relatively little attention.

Social context in the experience of learning

The antecedents of the tension surrounding the role of the teacher are evident in the metaphors used by theorists such as Rousseau, Pestalozzi and Froebel. Froebel, whose term "kindergarten" epitomises the use of metaphor to liken the child to a plant and the teacher to a gardener, explained his intention, 'Little children...ought not to be schooled and taught, they need merely to be developed . It is the pressing need of our age, and only the idea of a garden can serve to show us symbolically ... the proper treatment of children' (Froebel, 1891, p.291).

There is a sense of understatement in the use of "merely" in this context and it is possible to imagine how such a statement could be interpreted as advocating a restrained role for the teacher. In fact, the teacher's role was of particular concern to Froebel:

Not the communication of knowledge already in their possession is the task, but the calling forth of new knowledge. Let them observe, lead their pupils to observe, and to render themselves and their pupils conscious of their observations.

(Froebel, 1905, p. 200)

As individualistic models of cognitive development have been reassessed (Rogoff, 1990) the influence of social, cultural and historical factors on children's development has been recognised. Vygotsky (Davydov, 1995) has shown how the various signs and symbol systems such as language and visual images which are specific to a child's culture are integral to the way in which that child comes to make meaning and to understand his or her world.

The complex interplay between the child, the current situation and the broader cultural context mediates the child's experience of thinking and learning. For example, in the "pink" vignette in the opening section, the context of the current situation for the children included their previous and present experiences of drawing, of colour, and of relating to each other, as well as the availability of art materials and the child-sized table which they were sharing. The broader context of culture included the language used, the children's exposure to particular visual images, social norms regarding gender stereotypes, the educational approach which facilitated their participation in artmaking.

Children's interactions with each other affects their understandings of themselves. The reciprocal exchanges involved in social interactions result in children being influenced and influencing their socio-cultural environment (Van Der Veer & Valsiner 1991, 1994; Newman & Holzman 1993). Again, as an example, in the "pink" vignette the children were sitting around a small table on which they could see each other's images, comment on them, possibly respond to them through their own images, and choose to use the same or different colours as their peers.

The interactive role of the adult or more expert peer described in Vygotsky's theory of the Zone of Proximal Development (Vygotsky 1962) involves the joint construction of meaning through discussion and collaborative exploration with the child. Rather than imposing perceptions upon them, adults respond to children's interest and curiosity, and in the process, encourage them to extend their learning just beyond their present mastery level.

In the light of this contemporary understanding, Froebel's view of the teacher's role could be seen as a relatively enlightened perspective. Froebel sees the influence of teachers as both subtle and dynamic. Engaging in the process of observing, the teacher is an active participant in making meaning, not for the child, rather with the child. That is, both the teacher and the child appear to be viewed as learners.

The nature of effective interactions between teachers and children is increasingly being seen as a complex interplay of factors which need further investigation. An example of research which seeks to understand this dynamic more clearly is discussed in a later section.

The development of interest in aspects of gender in the visual arts in early childhood.

During the twentieth century, many studies of children's drawings and paintings signalled differences in form, colour and imagery according to gender. To a late twentieth century observer, the research in this area reflects an increasing understanding of the circumstances and nature of the development of creative processes in early childhood. Specifically, research has moved from investigating the psychological characteristics of children's artmaking, to observing the subject matter chosen by children, and more recently, to analysing the influence of the curriculum in children's artistic development. The following section explores the way in which gender has been seen to influence children's artmaking and shows how early childhood educators have been influenced by wider social attitudes.

Psychological characteristics
The growing influence of psychology on practice in education in the 1930's-1940's was responsible for several categories of research studies which were to influence aspects of the arts in early childhood. Goodenough's 1926 study of the measurement of intelligence through analysis of children's drawings, was the precursor to a range of research focusing on different psychological characteristics (Goodenough, 1926; Eng, 1931; Griffiths, 1935).

A parallel interest in sex-differences in young children was evident in studies such as Hattwick (1937). Hattwick's continuing interest in sex differences is reflected in the influential study, Painting and Personality , published ten years later with Alschuler, (Alschuler and Hattwick, 1947). One hundred and fifty two-to-five-year-old children, "black and white", were studied over the period of a year and the data was extensively analysed in an attempt to show how children's experiences are often reflected in their paintings and drawings. The influence of sex-differences is explicitly drawn out from analysis in three areas of artistic development: line and form; colour; and brush strokes. In reporting on the quantitative analysis of the difference between crayon and easel painting "products", Alschuler and Hattwick make some significant observations:

In the context of the late 1940's the "and/or" qualification appears to signal an awareness of the complexity of factors, other than gender, which may influence imagemaking. This is borne out in the subsequent observation:

It is of some interest that all these examples of conflicting circular-vertical designs (or, as interpreted, "conflicting masculine-feminine drives") occur in girls. One wonders whether this may be due to two cultural factors, namely (1) Do the rather rigid standards concerning the behaviour of little girls make for rebellion and conflict? (2) Does the value placed on being a male in our society also make for the conflict noted? (Alschuler and Hattwick, 1947 p.132)

The influence of environmental stimuli on children of both genders is acknowledged and the background of each child is considered within a psychological framework for analysis. While associations are made between types of behaviours and gender (assertive-male, submissive-female), explicit mention is made of the observation of both boys and girls who did not conform to these stereotypes. For example, while vertical strokes are seen to have parallels with "masculine tendencies", girls with "strong assertive drives (who appeared to have) no conflicts over their assertive feelings" are observed to use vertical strokes as seen in the case of:

Shirley was a talkative, self-assured, outgoing child with a wealth of ideas which were carried out in dramatic play, in which she took the lead. Shirley showed relatively little interest in painting. She used warm colors, and her products were consistently characterised by vertical and horizontal strokes often combined into squares. (Alschuler and Hattwick, 1947 p.59)

Choice of colour was the second aspect of artistic development that was perceived by Alschuler & Hattwick (1947) to be significantly sex-related. They reported that girls' use of colour was more "intense and persistent" (p.15) than that of boys and this was specifically linked with a perception on the part of contemporary researchers that girls manifested more emotion than boys and it was seen as logical therefore that girls should "tend towards free expression of emotions" in their paintings and drawings (p.103).

From a contemporary perspective it is possible to see how Alschuler and Hattwick foreshadowed a more inquiring approach to the study of sex-differences by raising questions about the broader developmental context of the child.

Subject matter
In the second half of the century, interest in identifying gender differences in the subject matter of children's drawing became evident in studies such as Feinburg (1977) and McNiff (1982). Two special issues of the American journal Studies in Art Education addressed the current interest relating to gender issues. In 1977, guest editors for the issue titled 'Sex Differences as they Relate to Art and Art Education' noted the paucity of research into 'male-female differences as they apply to art and art education' and particularly:
qualitative and quantitative research on: the occurrence and effects of sex discrimination in the art classroom; the differential effects of teaching methodologies and role modelling on boys and girls, and many other important areas of related interest. (Packard & Zimmerman 1977 pp.5-6)

Thirteen years later, Pariser and Zimmerman (1990) note in their guest editorial that a paucity of research still exists in gender issues in art education. While the focus of Studies in Art Education covers the whole spectrum of art and art education, these observations are particularly relevant to the area of early childhood art education. In the 1990 issue no research specific to the early childhood area was included.

By recognising different motivations in children's depictions teachers are able to take an inclusive approach to art education based on the personally relevant conceptualisations of children's experiences of the world.

In a study of 1800 drawings done by 26 children aged six, seven and eight, McNiff (1982) concluded:

The children's art did not present stereotypic images of sex roles nor could the contrasts be specifically attributed to genetic, social or psychological differences between the sexes ... girls and boys have very different expressive interests which are not necessarily fully incorporated into their educational environment and which affect all areas of school adjustment (McNiff, 1982, p. 271).

This question of how differing expressive interests may be incorporated into the educational environment has been approached through a systemic view of learning by attention to the ways in which the curriculum influences children's choice of images.

Influence of the curriculum

For young children, an approach to the curriculum which facilitates the investigation of aspects of their own lives, including aspects of gender, is likely to start with the teacher observing those interests and questions which are motivating children's play. Observations such as the preoccupation with pink mentioned earlier, the roles children take in socio-dramatic play, or the interest a child takes in constructing a complex building, may all form the basis for planning in early childhood settings. Such an approach contrasts with a more traditional view of curriculum which advocates teacher control of the subject matter.

In concluding a review and analysis of current literature pertaining to gender differences in children's drawings, Speck (1995) raises the issue of 'free' choice in drawing and suggests that such an approach perpetuates stereotypes:

Therefore ought not drawing (and painting) topics be set that function to create successful masculinity and femininity, rather than permitting children to perpetuate unsuccessful versions thereof in their free choice art.

Speck's solution is:

... more observational, scientific, technical and mechanical drawing for girls and more still life and decorative drawing and more detailed human figure drawing for boys; and to fantasy drawing for girls and boys that is not gender blind.

Speck 1995 p.49-50

Speck is not specific about the age group she is addressing. For early childhood educators however, such a statement again raises the issue of teacher intervention in children's art-making and the means by which teachers promote children's construction of meaning through the visual arts. While Speck's research indicates the need for teachers to consider carefully children's experience of the world to ensure that this is expanded through their artmaking, the way in which this occurs in early childhood settings is more complex than merely 'setting topics'.

Recognising teachers influence in children's constructions of self.

Teachers' responses to children's behaviours or products has been observed by Csikszentmihalyi (1990) to be a key dependent variable in much research about children's creativity. Several researchers (for example, Halpin & Halpin, 1973; Glover & Gleary, 1976, cited in Amabile, 1979) suggest that creativity can be influenced by children's knowledge of what is valued by the teacher. Yet, specific evaluation of children's art is generally discouraged. This raises the question of how teachers can respond constructively to children.

A case study of teacher response to children's artmaking

Teachers can be a potent influence in shaping childrens' points of view (White 1996). In artmaking experiences teachers convey attitudes and values to children in subtle ways. Seeking to understand more clearly how teachers conveyed to children, through explicit verbal responses, what they valued in children's artmaking, Makin, White & Owen, (1996) observed teachers and children in four Anglo-Australian and Asian-Australian early childhood settings. Five teachers in four settings were observed as they interacted with children engaged in painting/collage experiences. Verbal interactions from video-recordings of the teacher-child interactions were transcribed using message-semantics networks developed by Makin (1994) which allowed for the detailed description and analysis of the evaluative messages in the talk between children and teachers.

The issues explored in the study included:

• What do adults say to young children about their image-making?
• How do adult responses affect children's engagement with their image-making?

Do adults in different cultures give similar evaluative messages?

Considerable contrast was observed between the five teachers (three Anglo-Australian, one Japanese and one Chinese-Australian) in terms of their level of engagement with children from a range of cultural backgrounds. While all the teachers indicated that communication was a goal of their arts program, the ways in which this occurred in practice varied widely. The use of non-verbal communication such as gesture, proximity, eye contact and timing, both by children and adults, all indicated subtle, yet powerful, forms of communication.

In some settings, however, many of the interactions between teachers and children during the artmaking were concerned with the mechanics of activity maintenance. In these settings, less emphasis seemed to be placed on interactions which focussed on the actual process of painting/collage and the image being created. It was also found that in many instances teachers did not wait to hear children's responses to their questions. Rather, they appeared to be responding to their own preconceived ideas about the topic under discussion which precluded them from genuine interchange with the children. Teachers who actively engaged the children in dialogue about their image-making encouraged longer participation in the activity. This engagement involved imaginative responses in many instances.

The following examples illustrate these contrasts. In both examples children have indicated that they are ready to leave the activity:

Example 1

(Note: Both children in this example are female)

Teacher: is your painting finished Nanayo?

Nanayo: (nods)

Teacher: if it's finished, why don't you tell Masayo what your painting is all about?

Masayo, why don't you ask Nanayo what her painting is all about? Why don't you ask her what she has drawn?

Masayo: what have you drawn?

Nanayo: (whispers something in Masayo's ear.)

Teacher: oh, you feel a bit shy Nanayo. What did she tell you Masayo?

Masayo: I couldn't hear it

Nanayo: (whispers again)

Masayo: (to T.) they're stars.

Teacher: aren't these stars pretty? You are in this picture too aren't you Nanayo?

Nanayo: (points to one place in the picture)

Teacher: so that's where Nanayo is? Who are you watching those stars with Nanayo?

(to Masayo) Do you know Shia? Shia is a little baby.

(to Nanayo) who else with?

Nanayo: Mia and Mum and Dad.

Teacher: (to Masayo) can you see the stars from your place? Oh, you don't think you can?, oh if that's the case ask your Mum and Dad tonight OK?

(to Nanayo) that's what you can see from your place isn't it Nanayo?

The teacher makes a deliberate attempt to extend the children's involvement at the easel by first encouraging them to look closely at each others paintings and then engaging with them in dialogue. The co-construction of meaning appears to be this teacher's goal.

Example 2

Mary: Bill's finished.

Teacher: Bill's finished has he? Oh you have finished Bill? Right, would you like to take your painting and hang it up outside? It's a lovely painting. Bill, would you like to hang it on the fence?

Bill: I can't.

Teacher: You can't, oh, would you like me to help you?

Alright Phoebe, I'll help you love, I'll just get some pegs as well, we'll put it down here like that to dry.

In this example, the teacher's goal appears to be maintenance of the activity. Her response to children's comments is to repeat them without amplification. Children are not encouraged to extend their time at the easel.

Is the contrast in the approach of these two teachers influenced by gender or culture? While these two female teachers were from different cultural backgrounds, the contrast in teaching styles which is evident was also apparent when the teacher in the first example was interacting with boys. Her beliefs about teaching and learning were consistent in terms of her practice with both girls and boys. In post-study interviews both teachers mentioned that they had taught in at least one country other than the country in which they undertook their original teacher education. The first teacher felt that her beliefs and practice had been influenced by this experience. The second teacher said that she had not changed her practice as a result of the experience. It appears that the first teacher's openess to new cultural experiences and willingness to change her practice maybe symptomatic of a greater flexibility of approach to teaching and learning.

Implications for teachers concerned to develop the child's construction of gender.

In analysing the effect of teachers' verbal messages on children's artmaking, it became apparent that, in many instances, teachers had difficulty in responding to the children's artmaking. They seemed uneasy about using specialised language to discuss aspects of the children's paintings such as colour, form and texture which restricted their ability to respond to and talk with children in ways which challenged and extended the artmaking experience. This suggests that teachers would benefit from more experience in using art materials to enable them to go beyond developmental theories and gain a more concrete understanding of the potential and challenge of artmaking and art media in early childhood settings.

Skills such as listening, observation and knowledge of strategies that children use are essential if teachers are to assist children in articulating, refining and extending their artmaking experiences. Understanding of the wider context of how children are thinking about gender, how they are evaluating gendered images and how individual children are actively constructing themselves as male or female, would enable teachers to engage with children as co-constructors of meaning thereby extending children's capacity to use the visual arts as an imaginative and expressive form of communication.

Thus, a contemporary view of the role of adults in art education (Figure 2) which acknowledges both the value of children's exploration and investigation and their need to develop the skills of artmaking to enable them to satisfy their increasing need for complexity in the expression of their ideas, will also need to acknowledge that the "natural" development of children is culturally shaped.

Transmission of socio-cultural values in early childhood settings

The influence of the Romantic writers such as Rousseau on visual arts education practice in the 1920-30's is clearly evident through the work of Franz Cizek who developed the concept of "Child Art". Cizek subscribed to Rousseau's view of the "natural" law of children as is evident in his reply to a question about the need for teacher-direction:

Children have their own laws which they must needs obey. What right have grown-ups to interfere? People should draw as they feel.

Cizek 1942 p. 32.

While the view of the child as "natural" and "free" pervades many adult perceptions of childhood, this view is naive in terms of recognising the means by which culture informs a child's experience of the world. The notion of "free" expression would appear to deny the influence of a whole range of factors such as:

• parental interest, encouragement and facilitation,
• the character of the child's wider visual environment;
• the value which the child's community places on visual expression; and
• the practice which the teacher creates in the early childhood setting.

Such factors are likely to influence the ways in which children make sense of their world and represent their ideas through images. Similar observations have been made in the field of literacy where the way in which children relate their experience of the real world to the world of books has also been assumed to be "natural" (Brice Heath, 1982). Different communities follow socially established practices regarding the sharing of literacy through read or told story, reading signs, following information or instruction sheets, interpreting television advertisements, and more contemporarily, using information technology. Depending on the orientation of these early literacy experiences, children arrive at school with varying degrees of enculturation into the assumed world of school-based literacy.

The parallel in the visual arts are the early experiences a child has in sharing aspects of the visual environment. Just as exposure to the world of written language does not automatically result in a direct path to literacy, so looking does not necessarily result in "seeing" details of the visual environment. The socially established practices of families and communities with regard to attending to and sharing visual details with children will clearly inform the ways in which children use these images in their own symbolmaking.

Children's development in the visual arts

While all facets of children's development are likely to affect their artmaking in some way, aspects of development which are particularly relevant to symbolic expression include:

Birth to 2 years

• transition from bodily expression towards the use of symbols;
• for example from crying to pointing when wanting to direct attention to an object.
• exploring through the senses;
• feeling an object, putting it in the mouth, shaking it.

2-5 years

• spontaneously representing feelings about themselves and their world; making marks on paper to represent their family and friends, squeezing, pulling and rolling clay to represent their pet or toy, using boxes to create a representation of their home.
• developing an individual repertoire of recurring symbols or schema;
• often systematic in their experimentation;
• for example will use trial-and-error, repetition, rotation, observation and reflection to refine their artistry in an effort to produce more specific communication.

5-8 years

• relative confidence in their own forms of expression;
• interested in solving graphic problems such as showing a profile;
• need for more precise and effective communication with their peers;
• need to use symbols in an increasingly more functional way.
  

Awareness of the value of visual expression in the overall development of the child will enable teachers to facilitate children's acquisition of personally valid and satisfying forms of communication.

Consideration of a physical and human environment that will facilitate children's development of a positive gendered self concept through the visual arts.

By taking an investigative approach to children's interests and considering both the human and physical environment when planning, early childhood teachers can play an active role in children's construction of the gendered self. The following aspects of context are presented so that you have the opportunity to reflect on issues that may influence the way in which children in early childhood settings can explore their ideas, create images and make sense of their world.

Physical environment

Consider the influence of the physical arrangement of the setting:

Teachers sometimes observe that boys prefer outdoor play and girls prefer indoor play.

what opportunities are there for children to engage in art experiences both inside and outside?

If boys dominate the block area and girls control the collage materials some children may be prevented from exploring equipment and materials which may be valuable for the expression of their ideas.

how can equal access to a full range of expressive materials be ensured?

When a child has had a satisfying experience with drawing, painting or clay, they are likely to want to repeat this on subsequent days.

how can provision be made for a range of basic materials to be available every day? When children are comfortably seated in small groups they often look at each others drawings or clay constructions and discuss them together.

what provision is made for small group seating arrangements?

The potential for extending children's visual environment reaches well beyond the immediate physical environment.

what opportunities are available for broadening children's experiences through visiting galleries, museums, and going on walks into the natural environment?

Human environment

Considering their role in the joint construction of meaning between children and adults, requires teachers to observe and analyse the nature of their interactions with children.

When children make gender related comments on issues such as clothing, preferences for particular colours, toys or games, this is often an indication of an interest in socio-cultural expectations about gender.

are opportunities made for following up such comments, either at the time or in a later experience?

Looking at plants, familiar objects, paintings and other visual images does not necessarily ensure that details such as colour, form, line, and subject matter have been closely observed.

how can children be engaged in looking closely at their visual environment?

When children hear comments which stereotype abilities or behaviour as gender specific, they often conform to those stereotypes without trying experiences for themselves.

are boys and girls being encouraged to be involved in a range of expressive visual experiences and to use varied media?

The creative potential of materials and equipment varies in terms of the possibilities for imaginative or realistic expression and play.

how are children encouraged to use equipment in a variety of ways to ensure that both the imaginative and realistic potential are explored?

When responding to children's artworks adults often make casual comments which may include assumptions about the meaning which the child is expressing and stereotypical perspectives of gender and symbolic representations.

what methods can teachers use to listen to the way in which they respond to children and to understand more fully how their responses influence children's imagery?

Social relationships affect children's artmaking. The subtleties of peer relationships such as the way in which children watch and evaluate each other's artmaking, how ideas are exchanged, how imagemaking may be regulated through peer control, all influence children's participation in the visual arts.

how can staff in early childhood settings support each other to become more aware of children's social interactions?

Observing and understanding how children are shaping their view of themselves and the world.

Seeking a better understanding of the differences in children's symbolic understanding of reality, necessitates a sensitivity to the ways in which children are making meaning of their lives. The development of intuitive understanding in three to four year olds leads to their "theorising" about the world in order to make sense of their experiences.

(In the original, Emily used the relevant colour for each entry)

How can teachers harness this intuitive theorising? Furthermore, how can children's symbolic representation of their experiences be nurtured in ways which enable them to deal with the stereotyping of behaviour and other conflicting evidence they receive when interacting within their communities? In concluding an analysis of some examples of these conflicts, White (1996) asserted:

By being aware of the significance of the connections which children are making, how they are theorising about the world and the role imagination plays in their learning, teachers can collaborate with children to open up the possibilities for more responsive interaction, thereby building on and enhancing children's intuitive learning. (p.110)

In considering learning environments which are conducive to children's "research" through artmaking, the issues raised earlier regarding the contextual circumstances of children's learning will be revisited with specific reference to the capacity of the teacher in creating such an environment.

Drawing together: The potential of pink!

Returning to the questions raised in the opening vignette about pink, while colour was the focus of that particular exchange, similar questions can be asked about line, form and other aspects of artmaking in relation to children's developing awareness of gender. The arts are fundamental to early childhood practice and regular participation in drawing, painting, clay and other expressive media can provide children with opportunities to reflect on and extend their imaginative experiences. In parallel, teachers have the opportunity to develop interactions which support and extend young children's symbolic and imaginative development as one facet of a range of strategies to facilitate children's development of a positive, gendered self concept through the visual arts.

Teachers as active participants in children's artmaking

Teachers' abilities to engage effectively in the co-construction with children of an expressive environment are influenced by their own understanding of the process of artmaking. Just as children bring prior experiences to their symbolic expression so too do teachers bring to their interactions with children the prior experiences, both positive and negative, which they have had in the visual arts. In families they have experienced varying degrees of interest and enthusiasm about visual expression and communication. Among friends they have possibly shared or rejected particular styles of visual imagery. And in their educational settings they have experienced positive or possibly questionable reactions to their use and development of symbolic expression.

Similarities and differences evident between genders also exist within gender groups. When, in 1947, Alschuler & Hattwick (1947) asked (regarding examples of conflicting circular-vertical designs):

One wonders whether this may be due to two cultural factors, namely (1) Do the rather rigid standards concerning the behaviour of little girls make for rebellion and conflict? (2) Does the value placed on being a male in our society also make for the conflict noted?

Alschuler and Hattwick, 1947 p.132

Note: All illustrations have been reduced in size.

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